The Poor Law Amendment Act (1834) photo

The Poor Law Amendment Act (1834)

  1. The Poor Law Amendment Act (1834)
  2. Victorian philanthropy in 19th century England
  3. Electoral inequalities in Victorian England: the Road to Male Suffrage
  4. Ante Bellum, Inter Bella : Legislation and the Depression
  5. More electoral inequalities : the Road to Female Suffrage
  6. The Beveridge Report: a Revolution?
  7. The Welfare State: an end to poverty and inequality ?
  8. The Affluent Society : poverty rediscovered?
  9. Inequality and Race
  10. Inequality and Gender
  11. The Thatcher Years : the individual and society
  12. Inequalities in Britain today

In the Middle Ages, responsibility for the poor was in the hands of religious orders, usually to be found in the monasteries. In the middle of the 16th century, after the dissolution of the monasteries, the problem of looking after the poor became critical.

The increase in population was another factor and the poor people were often seen wandering around the country.

For many, the solution was to send the poor to fill up the new colonies in Virginia and beyond. In 1572, it was a criminal offence to be a vagabond and compulsory poor rates were introduced in the parishes.

The Poor Law of 1601 mentioned the “lame, impotent, old, blind, and other among them being poor and not able to work” and required the administration of poor relief in the parishes where the inhabitants had to take care of their “own poor”.

These laws were a mixture of charity and harshness, especially in the punishment of able-bodied people.

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Definitions : the State, the Nation, Home Rule and Devolution photo

Scotland: the State, the Nation, Home Rule, and Devolution

  1. Scotland: the State, the Nation, Home Rule, and Devolution
  2. The Act of Union of 1707
  3. Scottish Home Rule
  4. The rise of the Scottish National Party (SNP)
  5. The Scottish Parliament
  6. Scotland: the Road to Independence

The State and the Nation

For Benedict Anderson, Nations are “imagined communities”: it means that there is a will of the people to do things together and this group of people is so large that people cannot know every member: hence, they imagine the other members like them, sharing the same value.

The State is an independent polity, a political unit with a fully independent legislature. Scotland is not a State but she is a Nation.

Until 1999, Scotland was described as a “stateless nation”. Now it has a legislature: she is referred to as a “partially-stated nation”.

Home Rule – Devolution

“Home Rule” is a concept developed by the Liberal Party at the end of the 19th century. The whole concept was “Home Rule All Around” (i.e. Home Rule in the UK).

Then, it meant self-government (independence, autonomy), and later: devolution proposals of the Labour Party.

For Scotland, Home Rule means Scotland governed by Scots in Scotland: it underlines Scotland’s sovereignty. On the other hand, devolution underlines the sovereignty of the British State.

Vernon Bogdanor defines devolution as “the transfer of powers from a superior to an inferior political authority. Devolution may be defined as consisting of three elements:

  • the transfer to a subordinate elected body
  • on a geographical basis
  • of functions at present exercised by ministers and Parliament

The Scotland Act of 1998 set up the Scottish Parliament, its rules etc. Section 28: “This section does not affect the power of the British Parliament to make laws for Scotland”.

In theory, the British Parliament can still make laws for Scotland in Education for instance. The Scottish Parliament is subordinated to the British Parliament.

  • Devolved areas: education, health, environment…
  • Reserved areas: defence, foreign affairs, constitution…

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The Scottish Parliament photo

The Scottish Parliament

  1. Scotland: the State, the Nation, Home Rule, and Devolution
  2. The Act of Union of 1707
  3. Scottish Home Rule
  4. The rise of the Scottish National Party (SNP)
  5. The Scottish Parliament
  6. Scotland: the Road to Independence

Introduction

On May 1st 1997, a general election took place in the UK. It was won by the Labour Party after 18 years of Conservative Government (1979-1997).

The political programme of the Labour Party included a vast number of constitutional reforms and manifestos:

  • devolution (power to the regions) to Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and English regions (wide range).
  • reform of the House of Lords.
  • incorporation of the European Convention on Human Rights into British law.

The Labour Government was for devolution because there were demands for more autonomy (yet not the same demands):

  • Scotland: Parliament (law-making body)
  • Wales: Assembly
  • Northern Ireland: Assembly and power-sharing executive between Catholics and Protestants.

The Scotland Act

September 11th 1997: referendum in Scotland on devolution. Majority of “Yes” votes. The Scottish Bill was introduced and validated. It became the Scotland Act in 1998, which defines the Scottish Parliament, and its rules…

The next stage was the 1st Scottish General Election. Donald Dewar, who had been Secretary of State for Scotland in Tony Blair’s Government became the First Minister of Scotland. Labour did not have a majority and allied with the Liberal-Democrats (coalition executive).

Between mid-May and the end of June, the Scottish Parliament met regularly but it was officially opened by the Queen on July 1st, 1999.

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The rise of the Scottish National Party (SNP) photo

The rise of the Scottish National Party (SNP)

  1. Scotland: the State, the Nation, Home Rule, and Devolution
  2. The Act of Union of 1707
  3. Scottish Home Rule
  4. The rise of the Scottish National Party (SNP)
  5. The Scottish Parliament
  6. Scotland: the Road to Independence

Introduction

The SNP was born in 1934. It was not very successful as a political party (poor results). In April 1945, the SNP sent for the first time an MP to Parliament (Motherwell by-election).

In July, of the same year, it lost its unique seat during the general election.

1950s: poor results

Due to the lack of cohesion within the party: there were lots of divisions on several issues. And it had a negative image in public opinion: nationalism was considered evil and often associated with Nazi Germany and World War II.

1960s: breakthrough

1967: Hamilton by-election won by the SNP. The candidate elected was a woman, Winnifred Ewing.

1968: local elections. Very good results for the SNP.

People felt Scotland was spared the benefits of the economic boom of the United Kingdom. Scotland was among the regions which benefited the least. There was a feeling of discontent among the Scots. The SNP made progress.

After 1968, the SNP started to be taken seriously by both the Labour and the Conservative parties. Reactions :

  • Conservative Party (in opposition)

    In May 1968, Edward Heath (leader of the Conservative party) said he would give Scotland an Assembly: this is known as the “Declaration of Perth”. He created a constitutional committee presided by Sir Alec-Douglas-Home. The committee produced a report called “Scotland’s Government” in 1970.

    Recommendations:

       – creation of a Scottish Assembly,
       – 125 members elected directly,
       – powers to initiate and discuss Bills (to be approved by the British Parliament in Westminster).

  • Labour Party (in office)

    The Prime Minister, Harold Wilson, appointed the Royal Commission on the Constitution in 1968. The chairman was Lord Kilbrandon and it is referred to as the “Kilbrandon Commission”. It produced 2 reports in 1973.

    Recommendations:

       – creation of a Scottish Assembly,
       – members elected directly by Proportional Representation (a major innovation compared to the first-past-the-post system).

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Scottish Home Rule photo

Scottish Home Rule

  1. Scotland: the State, the Nation, Home Rule, and Devolution
  2. The Act of Union of 1707
  3. Scottish Home Rule
  4. The rise of the Scottish National Party (SNP)
  5. The Scottish Parliament
  6. Scotland: the Road to Independence

Introduction

After the Union of 1707, Scotland started to export goods massively: especially linen, cattle, and tobacco (Glasgow was nicknamed the “tobacco metropolis”).

Gradually the Union came to represent career opportunities for the upper-class and middle-class Scots: some joined the Army in India, some became merchants in London and some others migrated to North America as settlers.

1760s: 1st Industrial Revolution in Scotland. Until then, Scotland was a rural country. It became rapidly urbanized.

1760-1830: Scottish economy based on the textile industry (cotton, linen and wool).

After 1830, new industries appeared: the steel industry and the shipbuilding industry.

During Victorian Scotland (1837-1901), all industries were owned by the Scots. They were prosperous and exported their goods all over the world. There was no feeling of discontent for they were proud to be contributing to the Empire, adding up their prosperity.

In the 1880s, Scottish home rule (more autonomy) emerged as an issue in Scottish politics. It was the result of 3 factors:

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The Act of Union of 1707 photo

The Act of Union of 1707

  1. Scotland: the State, the Nation, Home Rule, and Devolution
  2. The Act of Union of 1707
  3. Scottish Home Rule
  4. The rise of the Scottish National Party (SNP)
  5. The Scottish Parliament
  6. Scotland: the Road to Independence

Introduction

Scotland was never conquered by England. There were attempts but they failed. At the end of the 13th century, the wars of independence began.

On May 1st 1707, the Act of Union was ratified between England and Scotland: the Scottish Parliament and the English Parliament were suspended. They created the British Parliament and formed Great Britain by the Union of Scotland and England.

At the time, Scotland was already a protestant country (the Reformation came in the 16th century, before then she was catholic). As England was also protestant, the two nations grew closer.

The Queen chose several men to represent Scotland and England in a commission to discuss the terms of the Treaty of Union. Several Acts and events precipitated the Union.

1698 – 1699: expeditions to Darien

It was a total failure for the Company of Scotland :

  • Scotland lost trading opportunities with France (due to the Reformation),
  • the Navigation Acts (1660-1663) prevented Scotland from trading with English colonies.

In England, the East-Indian Company had monopole and money. Hence, Scotland wanted the same: that is how the Company of Scotland was set up in 1695. Its full name was “Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and the Indies”.

The East Indian was not very happy and put pressure on English financiers who wanted to provide money to the capital of the Company of Scotland. The financiers finally withdrew and the Scots had to provide money themselves: a multitude of people giving little money.

The Company of Scotland established a trading post in America: Darien, in the Isthmus of Panama. 1698 saw the 1st expedition to Darien. It was a terrible failure for many people died during the journey and by fighting against the Spaniards already settled there.

The 2nd expedition was also a failure and the people who had invested in the enterprise were ruined, just like the company. After that experience, the Scots thought the best thing would be a union with England (no more Navigation Acts and access to colonies trading).

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Don Álvaro o la Fuerza del Sino por el Duque de Rivas photo

Don Álvaro o la Fuerza del Sino por el Duque de Rivas

Ángel de Saavedra, Duque de Rivas

Ángel de Saavedra, Duque de Rivas, nació en Córdoba el 10 de Marzo de 1791 y murió en Madrid el 22 de Junio de 1865. De familia aristocrática, recibió una vasta educación, con gran influencia de la cultura francesa, que motivó su gusto por la literatura y el dibujo.

Poeta y autor español, Ángel de Saavedra tuvo una vida atormentada. Criado en el seminario de los Nobles de Madrid, fue nombrado oficial de la guardia del Rey y se distinguió en la guerra de la Independencia (1808); condenado a muerte por Fernando VII a causa de sus ideas liberales, consiguió huir y vivió como exiliado durante diez años en Inglaterra, Italia, Malta y Francia.

Vuelve a España tras la amnistía de 1834, hereda el titulo de Duque y una gran fortuna; convertido al conservadurismo, es ministro, presidente del Consejo de Estado, embajador, director de la Real Academia de la Lengua.

Sus primeras poesías y sus primeros dramas muestran la influencia del neoclasicismo (Meléndez, Valdez y Quintana). Luego, el autor se orienta deliberadamente hacia el Romanticismo, con tres obras especialmente célebres.

La primera es un poema en doce romances: El Moro Expósito (1834), que trata de la leyenda del bastardo Mudarra y de sus hermanos. Es un fresco realista y fantástico de las civilizaciones árabe y cristiana en la España de la Edad Media.

El prólogo fue escrito por Alcalá Galiano. Don Álvaro o la fuerza del sino, cuya primera representación tuvo lugar en Madrid en 1835, representó el triunfo del Romanticismo sobre el Escenario; este drama fue en España lo que Hernani había sido en Francia.

Las trágicas aventuras de un héroe perseguido por el sino, el misterio, el amor y la muerte, con una mezcla de tipos y de tonos, lances imprevistos, etc.

Todo contribuye a crear una ilustración clamorosa del romanticismo. El Duque de Rivas se inspiró en la vida real: tuvo una propiedad, “La Jarilla”, en Hornachuelos y conoció la leyenda de la “Mujer Penitente”. Verdi se inspiró en este éxito para su ópera, La Forza del Destino (1862).

El último título glorioso del Duque son sus Romances históricos (1841), que trata de personajes y peripecias de la historia nacional, desde el reinado de Pedro El Cruel hasta la batalla de Bailén.

El Duque de Rivas, tras una vida plena, murió en 1865, pocos días después de la muerte de Antonio Galiano, su gran amigo.

Resumen

Don Álvaro, un indiano rico y misterioso que vive en Sevilla, tiene un romance con doña Leonor, hija del Marqués de Calatrava. Como éste no aprueba esos amores, don Álvaro decide raptar de su casa a doña Leonor. En la huida de los amantes, el Marqués muere accidentalmente. Este hecho da inicio a la tragedia de los protagonistas.

Los enamorados desaparecen. Doña Leonor vive oculta durante un año, de modo que todos, incluso don Álvaro, la creen muerta. Después, se retira al monasterio de los Ángeles, en Hornachuelos.

Don Álvaro viaja a Italia. Los dos hijos del Marqués, don Carlos y don Alfonso, han jurado vengar la muerte de su padre y salen en busca del indiano. En Veletri se encuentran y reconocen don Álvaro y don Carlos, lo que lleva a un duelo donde perece don Carlos. Don Álvaro sobrevive y se refugia en el convento de los Ángeles, en España, donde vive como fraile durante cuatro años.

Por su parte, don Alfonso, que había viajado a Perú, descubre toda la verdad sobre don Álvaro y regresa a buscarle. Segundo duelo obligado, en el cual cae herido don Alfonso. Ambos descubren que doña Leonor vive en la cercana ermita, y don Alfonso, creyéndola cómplice de don Álvaro, la mata.

Para don Álvaro, la única escapatoria a su destino es el suicidio, de modo que se arroja desde la montaña diciendo: «Yo soy un enviado del infierno, soy el demonio exterminador».

Estructura

Este drama está divido en cinco jornadas, cosa típica del teatro neoclásico. Podemos ver que Don Álvaro o la fuerza del sino tiene todas las características del teatro romántico en cuanto a historia, temas y estilo. Pero, en lo que se refiere a las normas neoclásicas de las tres unidades, el Duque de Rivas se tomó muchas libertades:

  • Hay diferentes lugares, de España a Italia.
  • El drama cubre un periodo de cinco años.
  • Hay una acción principal, pero también se intercalan historias costumbristas y cotidianas.

Las differentes jornadas

Primera Jornada

La escena empieza en Sevilla y sus alrededores, cerca del puente de Triana, con la escena cotidiana de un aguaducho. Están presentes el tío Paco, el oficial, una gitanilla que dice la buenaventura.

Observamos un cambio de decoración en la escena V, cuando estamos en casa de Doña Leonor.

Jornada Segunda

La escena tiene lugar en la villa de Hornachuelos, en Córdoba y sus alrededores. Estamos en el mesón de Monipodio. Están presentes el mesonero y la mesonera, un alcalde, un estudiante, un arriero y el tío Trabuco.

La acción principal consiste en el estudiante hablando con mucha cultura y burlándose un poco de los otros, incultos.

Se cambia la decoración en la escena III, nos hallamos en el exterior del monasterio de los Ángeles.

Jornada Tercera

La escena tiene lugar en Italia, en Veletri y sus alrededores. Cuatro oficiales jugando a los naipes. Estamos en una sala. Hay un cambio de decoración en la escena III: aparece una selva. También en la escena V: el teatro representa un risueño campo de Italia.

Otro cambio en la escena VII: estamos en el alojamiento de un oficial superior.

Jornada Cuarta

La escena tiene lugar en Veletri. Esta jornada es la única que no empieza con una escena costumbrista. Nos hallamos de nuevo en el alojamiento militar. La escena II se desarrolla fuera.

El lugar es la plaza principal de Veletri. Están presentes el teniente, el subteniente, Pedraza y unos oficiales. Podemos considerar esta escena como la escena costumbrista.

Jornada Quinta

La escena se desarrolla en el convento de los Ángeles y sus alrededores. Consiste en la sopa del convento. Hay mendigos y lisiados, el Padre Guardián y el Hermano Melitón.

En la escena IV, nos encontramos en una celda. Después, en la escena VIII, volvemos al lugar de la escena I. en la escena IX, nos hallamos fuera, el teatro representa un valle. En este lugar finaliza el drama.

En total, en toda la obra se producen quince cambios de decorado. En cuanto al tiempo, entre el fin de la jornada cuarta y la jornada quinta se produce un salto temporal: Don Álvaro lleva cuatro años retirado en el monasterio de los Ángeles.

Tenemos así que cuatro de las cinco jornadas empiezan con una escena costumbrista, que dan un colorido de romance popular, en contraste con las escenas nobles.

Temas principales

Uno de los temas es el tradicional de la venganza, sobre todo expresada en forma de duelo. Ese anhelo de vengarse parece salvar la honra familiar que ha sufrido una ofensa. En la obra, la furia del Marqués se transforma en deseo de venganza que pasa, como una obligación, a sus hijos.

El inicio del problema está en el amor, o mejor dicho la pasión entre don Álvaro y doña Leonor, que será muy breve porque será destruido por los deberes que la sociedad imponen y por la familia de Leonor.

Pero el tema principal es siempre “la fuerza del sino”, es decir la fatalidad que se abate sobre don Álvaro hasta su muerte. En efecto, esta fatalidad le impedirá vivir su amor con doña Leonor, y acabará matando al Marqués y a sus hijos.

Don Álvaro se sentirá entonces culpable por sus actos y huirá, hasta recluirse durante cuatro años en la soledad de un convento. Por último, pasando de fraile a enviado del infierno, don Álvaro se suicida considerándose «demonio exterminador» y pidiendo al infierno que se lo trague.

Don Álvaro no ha salvado su alma, no ha recibido la divina misericordia. Es éste el conflicto típicamente romántico: el hombre entre Dios y el mundo.

Personajes importantes

Don Álvaro es un indiano rico y de misterioso origen que vive en Sevilla. Está muy enamorado de doña Leonor y quiere fugarse con ella para casarse. Podemos ver a Don Álvaro como la personificación del ser romántico: su sentimiento interior es una mezcla indisoluble de dolor y soledad, y se ve dominado por el destino.

Además, idealiza la amistad, el honor y el amor: por esa razón, siempre se verá decepcionado por la vida terrenal y la única escapatoria a su destino será el suicidio.

Doña Leonor es una doncella aristocrática cuya pasión por don Álvaro provoca inexorablemente los tormentos del alma de su amante y le conduce a la culminación de un destino fatal. Leonor huye a un convento, pasa del sentimiento amoroso al sentimiento de culpa, que a su vez da lugar a la penitencia, en la cual encuentra la muerte.

El Marqués de Calatrava es el padre de doña Leonor, don Carlos y don Alfonso. Parece rígido porque se opone rotundamente a la boda de su hija con don Álvaro, por considerar al pretendiente un aventurero advenedizo. Pero no es la suya la figura de la severidad autoritaria, sino la de un padre que sólo quiere proteger a su hija.

El Marqués sorprende a los dos amantes y trata de impedir su huida pero muere accidentalmente, herido de muerte por el arma de don Álvaro.

Don Carlos es el primer hijo del Marqués. Busca vengar la muerte de su padre y lavar la afrenta a su familia con la sangre de don Álvaro. Se encuentra con don Álvaro y hace amistad con él hasta que descubre su identidad, lo cual lleva al duelo en que perece.

El funesto fin de Don Carlos puede asimilarse al principio vigente en la sociedad de la época: el principio de morir para vengar la honra escarnecida.

Don Alfonso es el segundo hijo del Marqués. También él quiere matar a don Álvaro y a doña Leonor. Encuentra a don Álvaro en un convento y le reta a un duelo, encontrando también él la muerte, no sin antes descubrir la presencia de su hermana en dicho convento y matarla, destrozando una vez más las esperanzas del amante.

Don Alfonso representa la funesta realización del dichoso destino de los dos amantes.

Otros personajes

El ámbito social abarca desde la nobleza de sangre real hasta los mendigos. El ejército está representado por múltiples estamentos: desde el grado de teniente coronel al de preboste u ordenanza. Para la religión tenemos en primer lugar a los franciscanos: Padre Guardián, definido como un siervo de Dios, y el Hermano Melitón, fraile gruñón pero gracioso.

También tenemos al canónigo, digno y prudente, que da lugar a toda la tragedia, y un capellán de regimiento. El alcalde representa la vida política. Encontramos también a un capitán, un cirujano, un estudiante parlanchín, arrieros, un aguador, mesoneros y criados.

Al lado de todos estos personajes, vemos a una gitana, Preciosilla, que parece inspirada en la Gitanilla de Cervantes, el ventero Monipodio, un pícaro sevillano y Félix de Avendaña.

Por último, don Álvaro se presenta con falsas identidades: el militar don Fadrique (que fue realmente hijo de Alfonso XI y de Leonor de Guzmán) y el Padre Rafael en el convento de los Ángeles.

Lengua y efectos estilísticos

Los cincos actos o jornadas, típicos del teatro neoclásico, tienen un doble ritmo: lento y moroso en los deliciosos cuadros de costumbres, rápido y precipitado cuando se pone en tensión el hilo argumental.

El Romanticismo acepta la mezcla de prosa y verso, contradiciendo así la estética neoclásica. El Duque de Rivas, para el verso, admite la diversidad métrica del Barroco, utilizando la redondilla, el romance, la silva y la décima. En Don Álvaro encontramos también unas seguidillas.

La única ley romántica es la ley de la libertad: no son las formas las que se imponen al poeta, es el poeta el que las somete a su sentimiento. Varias asonancias sirven de motivo sentimental que a veces hace adquirir al romance un aire particularmente sinfónico.

La versificación de Don Álvaro es desigual: a veces robusta, bastante fluida y con pocos ripios; llena de prosaísmo en otros casos. Las escenas de rigor argumental están en verso y las episódicas y costumbristas en prosa; con excepción de la escena final de la primera jornada, escrita en prosa rápida, detonante de gritos y maldiciones, y de las dos últimas escenas del drama, con el terrible desenlace, también en prosa entrecortada por exclamaciones imprecatorias.

A través de esta obra, podemos notar la frecuente yuxtaposición de los estilos elevado y llano, la gran variedad y riqueza en el vocabulario y en la estructura de las frases, que ilustran perfectamente todas las situaciones y los estados de ánimo de los personajes.

Bibliografía consultada

  • Joaquín Casualdero, Estudios sobre el Teatro Español, publicado en Madrid por Gredos en 1962.
  • Gabriel Boussagnol, Angel de Saavedra, Duc de Rivas. Sa vie, son oeuvre, publicado en Toulouse en 1926.
  • Miguel de Toro y Gisbert, Larousse Universal, Diccionario en séis volúmenes (tomo tercero), publicado en 1968.
  • Duque de Rivas, Don Alvaro o la fuerza del sino (introducción), publicado en Madrid por Catedra – Letras Hispanícas en 1998, edición de Alberto Sanchez.
Doña Inés (Historia de Amor) por José Martínez Ruiz [Azorín] photo

Doña Inés (Historia de Amor) por José Martínez Ruiz [Azorín]

Autor y Obra

José Martínez Ruiz nació en Monóvar (Alicante) en 1873. Su padre era abogado y fue alcalde del pueblo. Su madre era una mujer discreta.

El deseo de escribir de Ruiz nació en su infancia, ya que su padre era un gran lector y su madre escribía en secreto. Tenía nueve hermanos. La experiencia del colegio le dejó recuerdos tristes.

Después del bachillerato, inició estudios de derecho en Valencia. Nunca obtuvo la licenciatura, aunque cambió varias veces de universidad. Pasaba mucho tiempo divertiéndose con espectaculos, teatro y corridas.

Empezó trabajando en periódicos locales, como El Mercantil, en el que adoptó su primer pseudonimo, Ahrimán.

En 1896, abandonó Valencia y se fue a Madrid donde enseguida encontró trabajo en la redacción de El País.

Fue expulsado en 1897 a causa de su oposición a las convenciones de la época. Durante ese año en Madrid escribió un diario : Charivari, que habla de El País.

Después, se fue a Cordoba y volvió a Monóvar. Regresó a Madrid para trabajar en la redacción de El Progreso.

En 1897, escribió solamente unos artículos. Escribió Los Hidalgos (la vida en el siglo XVII), publicado en 1899 y reeditó en 1900 El Alma Castellana. Presenta la vida histórica del pueblo, inspirado por el concepto de intra-historia de Unamuno.

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The plot in Regeneration by Pat Barker photo

A transformed vision of time in Regeneration

Introduction

Space, setting, the interaction between landscape and mindscape and the curious similarities between outdoors places in Scotland and the landscape of the Flanders correspond to the writer’s intention of similarity: the characters are so obsessed by the war that they see it in Scotland.

This obsession ultimately transforms their vision of time.

The present is the past

Indeed, the characters have no present. It applies to all traumatized soldiers:

  • conscious: remembering.
  • unconscious: hallucination

For instance, Sassoon had hallucinations (p.12): “the pavement was covered in corpses“. Then he says he had no more: the reader can doubt it:

  • p.5: “he saw lines of men“.
  • p.142: “with a crack like rifle fire“.

The same happens to Burns: (p.37): “a branch rattled like machine gun fire“.
And to Prior:

  • p.214: “the darkness, the nervousness, the repeated and unnecessary swallowing…
  • p.215: “at this distance, her eyes merged into a single eye“.He remembers the eye he held in the trenches.Love scene turned into a horror scene.

No future

If the past keeps coming back then there is no future.

  • p.118: Rivers’s analysis of Sassoon: “inability to envisage any kind of future“.
  • p.198: “it means you’re obsessed […] you never talk about the future anymore“.

A subjective vision of time

Read passage p.83-84 : conversation between Owens and Sassoon about the war.

Personal time

Interesting passage: 2 people in a hospital talking about their past experience. You would expect present tense to refer to the moment of enunciation and past tenses to refer to the war but here, present tenses are used to refer to the past:

  • “sometimes when you’re alone“.
  • and that makes it something you almost can’t challenge“.
  • what you see every night“.

When the present is used, “you” is used too. Both tense and pronoun have the effect of generalizing their experience so that their personal experience of the war is turned into a universal experience. What happened to them becomes exemplary.

B. Historical time

Generalization has the effect of blurring WW1 as an historical event and of presenting it as an a-historical event.

Owen:

  • you get sense of something ancient“.Owen takes the war out of the contemporary period.
  • men from Marlborough’s army“.He compares WW1 to very distant events in the past.
  • wars distilled themselves into that war“.Owen shows the similarities of all wars. World War One is the model, the paradigm of all wars.

Sassoon refers to the future. The result is the same: war loses its temporal and historical quality.

  • “I seemed to be seeing it from the future”.If he is in the future, then war represents the past.

War loses its historical quality. The common point is that war becomes a sort of symbolic representation of Time.

Time is movement but for them, time is eternal death.

The plot in Regeneration by Pat Barker photo

Landscape and mindscape in Regeneration

Study of a passage p.37-38: “he got off at the next stop […] whine of shells“.

This passage is not a dialogue. The narrator is telling us about Burns. Presence of realistic elements: stress on concrete details (“a tuft of grey wool“). Use of chronological order + realistic framework.

Everything is seen through Burns’s subjectivity: he is the central focalizer and we move from an objective description of landscape to a subjective mindscape.

Presence of subjectivity

Focalization

Burns is the focalizer (internal focalization): “looking up and down“. Burns does not only look, he feels trough his skin: “raindrops”, “burning round the knees”.

He also hears the pigeon.

Narration

Passage characterized with 3rd person narration. From time to time, the voice of the character emerges:

  • “it was so long since he’d been anywhere alone”.
  • “up, up”.

Burns is talking. The main effect is to reduce the distance between the reader and the character.

The impossible escape

Burns has left the hospital in an impulse. He does not know where he wants to go. His mental state is extremely fragile and even the traffic is too much for him. He favours a solitary place: “a hill”. Desire for escape:

  • out of hospital.
  • away from human beings.

The hill: a savage and desolate place. The stress is on the upward movement:

  • “up, up”
  • repetition of “hill”
  • “climbing”
  • “crest”

When there is an insistence on something in the text, it may have a symbolic meaning.

  • upward movement: usually trying to find a better world.
  • quite consistent with his desire to get away from human beings.
  • it is unconscious.

The problem is that he goes up but he is stopped: “way barred by a force”. His progression is hindered and he becomes a prisoner of Nature. Intention to move on: “he pressed two strands of wire apart” but failure: “catching his sleeve”. Then panic: “breaking into a sweat”. Burns tries to protect himself: “steeple of his cupped hands”.

There are 2 symbolic meanings:

  • protecting his breath,
  • steeple: symbol of the church.
    => he ought to take shelter.

An aggressive nature

3 elements out of 4 are present in the text:

  • Air: wind
  • Earth: mud
  • Water: rain

The 4 elements are necessary to life but here rain aggresses Burns and blinds him. No freedom. Air: high wind and maline intention (evil wind). “Snatching away” : the wind is trying to kill him.

The landscape of Scotland becomes the landscape of Flanders. Burns mistakes a place for another (confusion) and a moment for another: there is no present for Burns since what he lives is the war.

That is the way Pat Barker chose to express Burns’ trauma.

The plot in Regeneration by Pat Barker photo

Historical figures and fictional characters in Regeneration

How human beings presented in Regeneration are different from historical characters?

Paradoxically, several characters had real historical existence and yet, there is no difference between those who really existed and those invented: it seems that they are on the same level.

The major difference lays in characterization, i.e. the ways in which human beings are constructed in characters. In history books, the stress is usually on public life whereas in fiction the stress is on subjectivity.

Regeneration is a faithful evocation of World War One and the view of the war that is given is the juxtaposition of subjective views of characters.

Characterization

A – Places

Where are the characters presented ?

  • hospital + patients’ room [Private]
  • one of the character’s home [Private]
  • the lovers’ place [Intimate]
  • several passages showing Rivers in his bathroom (p.44) [Most private
    life
    ]

Lire la suite

The plot in Regeneration by Pat Barker photo

First dialogue between Rivers and Sassoon in Regeneration

Study of the passage p11-12: from “What kind of questions did they ask..” to “with quite a bit of his leg left inside“.

This is the first real dialogue between Rivers and Sassoon. Sassoon is presented as shell-shocked. This passage is composed of a dialogue and 12 lines of narrative. Most of the narrative comments describe Sassoon’s behaviour.

Dialogue and verisimilitude

Dialogue enhances verisimilitude. Rivers is a psychiatrist and Sassoon is the patient. It is a normal professional situation. The relations are based on dialogue.

The psychiatrist has to understand and must invite patients to talk to overcome the previous trauma.

“War neurosis”: technical language.

Dialogue and drama

Tension, conflictual situation.On the one hand, Rivers is a military psychiatrist whose duty is to heal the soldiers to send them back to the front in France. On the other hand, Sassoon is a poet who has written a protestation against the war.

The conflict is all the more obvious that there is no narrator in this passage. The two characters seem to address the reader directly.

Dialogue and character’s development

We learn about the characters when reading the dialogue. The dialogue is also used as stage directions: it has a theatrical function. Stage directions are indications of characters’ personality.

l.2: “Sassoon smiled“.
  • smile is not expected
  • ironical when he says “Don’t you know ?

He asks another question instead of answering. Non-answers. l.6: Sassoon describes the Board as “rather amusing” : flippant, arrogant, irony.

Flippancy changes with the psychological evolution of Sassoon.

l.23 : “looked surprised“.
From that point onwards, Sassoon is not so sure of himself.
Rivers managed to destabilize him.

l.33 : “Mad Jack” —– “looked taken aback
Even more destabilized.

l.37 : “ “Is it ?” Sassoon looked down at his hands“.
Avoids confrontation, playing hide and seek.

l.40 : “he looked up to see if he should continue“.
Sassoon recognizes that Rivers is a form of authority.

Dialogue and banishment of the past

The use of dialogue modifies temporality because historical events are suddenly brought out of the past into the present situation.The novel was written in 1991. The passage deals with 1917. A history book uses 3rd person and past tense.

Here, the past is made present in the dialogue. Sassoon speaks of his own time (immediate time), talks about his Board and some parts of his experience in France a few months before.

The period of time is reduced: the novel is situated in the First World War and 1917 becomes the temporal landmark.

Sassoon starts speaking in past tense but l.44 he reverts to sentences without verbs (nominal sentences). No verb means no passing of time, no past.l.46 : present tenses again.

The experience is so drastic that when speaking he is reliving the moment. Past becomes present again. That is exactly what Rivers had hoped for.

Technical remarks

  • indirect speech: the disappearance of the past.
  • l.5: Sassoon reports the question he was asked. For us readers, it is as
    if we witnessed the scene of the Board: it is shown more than told.