The Beveridge Report : a revolution ? photo

The Beveridge Report: a Revolution?

  1. The Poor Law Amendment Act (1834)
  2. Victorian philanthropy in 19th century England
  3. Electoral inequalities in Victorian England: the Road to Male Suffrage
  4. Ante Bellum, Inter Bella : Legislation and the Depression
  5. More electoral inequalities : the Road to Female Suffrage
  6. The Beveridge Report: a Revolution?
  7. The Welfare State: an end to poverty and inequality ?
  8. The Affluent Society : poverty rediscovered?
  9. Inequality and Race
  10. Inequality and Gender
  11. The Thatcher Years : the individual and society
  12. Inequalities in Britain today

William Beveridge

William Beveridge was born in 1879 and he became a social worker in the East End of London in 1903. Later, he visited Germany to see for himself the system of social insurance introduced by Bismarck.

Beveridge became a journalist, writing mainly on social policy. He was noticed by Churchill (still a Liberal at that time) and in 1908, Beveridge became a civil servant at the Board of Trade.

Over the next three years, he worked on a national system of labour exchanges, which were introduced by the Liberal Government of Lloyd George. This measure only covered 2.75m men, one in six of the workforce.

Beveridge remained a civil servant for the duration of World War I and after the war, he became the Director of the London School of Economics (LSE). He continued academic work at the Universities of London and Oxford.

In June 1941, he was asked to chair an interdepartmental committee on reconstruction problems and on the coordination of existing schemes of social insurance.

At this time, the social security “system” was in a confused state: 7 Government departments were involved in providing various cash benefits to some people.

The terms of reference were:

To undertake, with special reference to the inter-relation of the schemes, a survey of the existing national schemes of social insurance and allied services, including workmen’s compensation, and to make recommendations. (Beveridge, Beveridge Report : Social Insurance and Allied Services, 1942)

Lire la suite

More electoral inequalities : the Road to Female Suffrage photo

More electoral inequalities : the Road to Female Suffrage

  1. The Poor Law Amendment Act (1834)
  2. Victorian philanthropy in 19th century England
  3. Electoral inequalities in Victorian England: the Road to Male Suffrage
  4. Ante Bellum, Inter Bella : Legislation and the Depression
  5. More electoral inequalities : the Road to Female Suffrage
  6. The Beveridge Report: a Revolution?
  7. The Welfare State: an end to poverty and inequality ?
  8. The Affluent Society : poverty rediscovered?
  9. Inequality and Race
  10. Inequality and Gender
  11. The Thatcher Years : the individual and society
  12. Inequalities in Britain today

Before the Industrial Revolution, men and women worked together as an economic unit, especially in rural communities. In well-off households, women would run the house.

The Industrial Revolution polarised women’s condition: the well-to-do withdrew from household management, leaving the way clear for the housekeeper. A woman was seen by the upper classes as an idealised creature, gentle, pure, and pious.

However, the ever more numerous working-class women would frequently work in factories. In 1851, 2.3m women and female children of working age out of 8m worked. Many women worked in service (1.2 million in 1881). Feminists disliked both these extremes.

Arguments against the franchise for women: women were disqualified by their sex; the franchise was based on property qualification; women were thought to be too emotional; most women did not need the vote (they were surrounded by men who often would have it).

For the rest, if vagrant and very poor men did not have the vote, then their women did not deserve it either; the “idealized” woman was above the dirty affairs of Parliament; female suffrage might well pose a threat to men’s sexual domination of women.

Women’s rights were limited if non-existent throughout the 19th century. Reforms were finally obtained after the perseverance of female/feminist activists.

Lire la suite

Ante Bellum, Inter Bella : Legislation and the Depression photo

Ante Bellum, Inter Bella : Legislation and the Depression

  1. The Poor Law Amendment Act (1834)
  2. Victorian philanthropy in 19th century England
  3. Electoral inequalities in Victorian England: the Road to Male Suffrage
  4. Ante Bellum, Inter Bella : Legislation and the Depression
  5. More electoral inequalities : the Road to Female Suffrage
  6. The Beveridge Report: a Revolution?
  7. The Welfare State: an end to poverty and inequality ?
  8. The Affluent Society : poverty rediscovered?
  9. Inequality and Race
  10. Inequality and Gender
  11. The Thatcher Years : the individual and society
  12. Inequalities in Britain today

The work of Charles Booth and Rowntree (see Chapter 2: Victorian Philanthropy) influenced a new current within the Liberal Party: new Liberalism.

When the Liberal Party was returned to office in 1906, supported by the nascent Labour Party, it introduced several important pieces of legislation: Education (Provisions of Meals) Act (1906), Education (Administrative Provisions) Act (1907), Children Act (1908), Old Age Pensions Act (1908), Trade Boards Act (1909), Labour Exchanges Act (1909) and Health and Unemployment Act (1911).

Even if we take all these laws together, we only have a piecemeal attempt to deal with social protection. Lloyd George and Churchill (at the time a Liberal) were responsible for the 1911 legislation on unemployment insurance and believed that something should be done to improve a situation that had scarcely evolved since 1834.

The liberals were not overtly committed to social reform during the 1906 election campaign but espousing such a cause was a way of possibly stymying the nascent Labour Party and also preventing any more revolutionary attempts at changing the social system.

Not all workers were covered by this legislation. Only wage-earners were eligible and sexually transmitted and alcohol-related diseases were excluded.

Of course, the wives and children of the poor and the unemployed were also excluded. The Act was administered essentially by the former (private) insurance companies, which became richer, as did the “panel doctors”, guaranteed a per capita sum per “panel patient”.

Lire la suite

Electoral inequalities : the Road to Male Suffrage photo

Electoral inequalities in Victorian England: the Road to Male Suffrage

  1. The Poor Law Amendment Act (1834)
  2. Victorian philanthropy in 19th century England
  3. Electoral inequalities in Victorian England: the Road to Male Suffrage
  4. Ante Bellum, Inter Bella : Legislation and the Depression
  5. More electoral inequalities : the Road to Female Suffrage
  6. The Beveridge Report: a Revolution?
  7. The Welfare State: an end to poverty and inequality ?
  8. The Affluent Society : poverty rediscovered?
  9. Inequality and Race
  10. Inequality and Gender
  11. The Thatcher Years : the individual and society
  12. Inequalities in Britain today

Before 1832, the electoral system in Great Britain was confused: there were County seats, Borough seats, “scot and lot” seats (where any adult male who paid local poor rates could vote), “potwalloper” seats (where every resident male of at least 6 months standing who was not a pauper could vote) and of course “rotten boroughs”.

Eventually, after a long struggle (cf The Peterloo Massacre in 1819), the First Reform Act was passed by a Whig Government in 1832, which resulted in an extension of male suffrage for England: in county seats to those owning freehold property worth at least 40 shillings per annum and those leasing or renting land worth at least £50 per annum; in borough seats to those owning property worth at least £10 per annum with provisions.

There were also changes in the distribution of seats: 56 borough constituencies lost their representation entirely, 30 boroughs lost one of their two members, 22 new Parliamentary boroughs were created with two members, 19 new Parliamentary boroughs were created with one member and county representation increased. Similar measures affected Wales, Ireland, and Scotland.

However, many working-class men felt they had gained nothing from this legislation: they only saw a small increase in the electorate to the advantage of the middle class. There followed a period of agitation, referred to as Chartism.

Lire la suite

Victorian philanthropy photo

Victorian philanthropy in 19th century England

  1. The Poor Law Amendment Act (1834)
  2. Victorian philanthropy in 19th century England
  3. Electoral inequalities in Victorian England: the Road to Male Suffrage
  4. Ante Bellum, Inter Bella : Legislation and the Depression
  5. More electoral inequalities : the Road to Female Suffrage
  6. The Beveridge Report: a Revolution?
  7. The Welfare State: an end to poverty and inequality ?
  8. The Affluent Society : poverty rediscovered?
  9. Inequality and Race
  10. Inequality and Gender
  11. The Thatcher Years : the individual and society
  12. Inequalities in Britain today

Two approaches seem to characterize the second half of the 19th century: on the one hand, Victorian philanthropy, designed essentially to reward those worthy of salvation and, on the other hand, a movement away from assistance towards self-help, the Cooperative Movement, Friendly Societies including Oddfellows, Trade Unions…

Charity was widespread during the 19th century though the actual amount distributed is difficult to estimate. It is claimed by William Howe, who produced surveys of London charities, that “the income of the London charities… (reached)… £2,250,000 in 1874-75 rising to £3,150,000 in 1893-94“. This was approximately one-third the figure spent by the Poor Law authorities at the time.

There have even been claims that charity exceeded State expenditure on the poor. Of course, not all charitable donations were intended for the poor.

Middle-class philanthropy was sometimes to be found in certain employers who attempted to look after the welfare of their workers: Cadbury in Birmingham, Lever on Merseyside, and Colman in Norwich are examples of this.

In 1869, the Charity Organization Society (C.O.S.) was set up to organize charities to maximize the charitable effects and to minimize any demoralization of the poor, by encouraging undeserving people to remain recipients of relief.

One of its leading lights was Octavia Hill, a leading housing reformer. Beneficiaries of church-sponsored charities would be expected to attend church or send their offspring to Sunday School in exchange for help. Many poor people resented this dependency culture and preferred to remain defiantly independent yet in need.

When one mentions “self-help”, one thinks immediately of Samuel Smiles: the moralizing concept of “self-help” seemed to be a value prized by the mid-Victorian middle class.

Lire la suite

The Poor Law Amendment Act (1834) photo

The Poor Law Amendment Act (1834)

  1. The Poor Law Amendment Act (1834)
  2. Victorian philanthropy in 19th century England
  3. Electoral inequalities in Victorian England: the Road to Male Suffrage
  4. Ante Bellum, Inter Bella : Legislation and the Depression
  5. More electoral inequalities : the Road to Female Suffrage
  6. The Beveridge Report: a Revolution?
  7. The Welfare State: an end to poverty and inequality ?
  8. The Affluent Society : poverty rediscovered?
  9. Inequality and Race
  10. Inequality and Gender
  11. The Thatcher Years : the individual and society
  12. Inequalities in Britain today

In the Middle Ages, responsibility for the poor was in the hands of religious orders, usually to be found in the monasteries. In the middle of the 16th century, after the dissolution of the monasteries, the problem of looking after the poor became critical.

The increase in population was another factor and the poor people were often seen wandering around the country.

For many, the solution was to send the poor to fill up the new colonies in Virginia and beyond. In 1572, it was a criminal offence to be a vagabond and compulsory poor rates were introduced in the parishes.

The Poor Law of 1601 mentioned the “lame, impotent, old, blind, and other among them being poor and not able to work” and required the administration of poor relief in the parishes where the inhabitants had to take care of their “own poor”.

These laws were a mixture of charity and harshness, especially in the punishment of able-bodied people.

Lire la suite

Definitions : the State, the Nation, Home Rule and Devolution photo

Scotland: the State, the Nation, Home Rule, and Devolution

  1. Scotland: the State, the Nation, Home Rule, and Devolution
  2. The Act of Union of 1707
  3. Scottish Home Rule
  4. The rise of the Scottish National Party (SNP)
  5. The Scottish Parliament
  6. Scotland: the Road to Independence

The State and the Nation

For Benedict Anderson, Nations are “imagined communities”: it means that there is a will of the people to do things together and this group of people is so large that people cannot know every member: hence, they imagine the other members like them, sharing the same value.

The State is an independent polity, a political unit with a fully independent legislature. Scotland is not a State but she is a Nation.

Until 1999, Scotland was described as a “stateless nation”. Now it has a legislature: she is referred to as a “partially-stated nation”.

Home Rule – Devolution

“Home Rule” is a concept developed by the Liberal Party at the end of the 19th century. The whole concept was “Home Rule All Around” (i.e. Home Rule in the UK).

Then, it meant self-government (independence, autonomy), and later: devolution proposals of the Labour Party.

For Scotland, Home Rule means Scotland governed by Scots in Scotland: it underlines Scotland’s sovereignty. On the other hand, devolution underlines the sovereignty of the British State.

Vernon Bogdanor defines devolution as “the transfer of powers from a superior to an inferior political authority. Devolution may be defined as consisting of three elements:

  • the transfer to a subordinate elected body
  • on a geographical basis
  • of functions at present exercised by ministers and Parliament

The Scotland Act of 1998 set up the Scottish Parliament, its rules etc. Section 28: “This section does not affect the power of the British Parliament to make laws for Scotland”.

In theory, the British Parliament can still make laws for Scotland in Education for instance. The Scottish Parliament is subordinated to the British Parliament.

  • Devolved areas: education, health, environment…
  • Reserved areas: defence, foreign affairs, constitution…

Lire la suite

The Scottish Parliament photo

The Scottish Parliament

  1. Scotland: the State, the Nation, Home Rule, and Devolution
  2. The Act of Union of 1707
  3. Scottish Home Rule
  4. The rise of the Scottish National Party (SNP)
  5. The Scottish Parliament
  6. Scotland: the Road to Independence

Introduction

On May 1st 1997, a general election took place in the UK. It was won by the Labour Party after 18 years of Conservative Government (1979-1997).

The political programme of the Labour Party included a vast number of constitutional reforms and manifestos:

  • devolution (power to the regions) to Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and English regions (wide range).
  • reform of the House of Lords.
  • incorporation of the European Convention on Human Rights into British law.

The Labour Government was for devolution because there were demands for more autonomy (yet not the same demands):

  • Scotland: Parliament (law-making body)
  • Wales: Assembly
  • Northern Ireland: Assembly and power-sharing executive between Catholics and Protestants.

The Scotland Act

September 11th 1997: referendum in Scotland on devolution. Majority of “Yes” votes. The Scottish Bill was introduced and validated. It became the Scotland Act in 1998, which defines the Scottish Parliament, and its rules…

The next stage was the 1st Scottish General Election. Donald Dewar, who had been Secretary of State for Scotland in Tony Blair’s Government became the First Minister of Scotland. Labour did not have a majority and allied with the Liberal-Democrats (coalition executive).

Between mid-May and the end of June, the Scottish Parliament met regularly but it was officially opened by the Queen on July 1st, 1999.

Lire la suite

The rise of the Scottish National Party (SNP) photo

The rise of the Scottish National Party (SNP)

  1. Scotland: the State, the Nation, Home Rule, and Devolution
  2. The Act of Union of 1707
  3. Scottish Home Rule
  4. The rise of the Scottish National Party (SNP)
  5. The Scottish Parliament
  6. Scotland: the Road to Independence

Introduction

The SNP was born in 1934. It was not very successful as a political party (poor results). In April 1945, the SNP sent for the first time an MP to Parliament (Motherwell by-election).

In July, of the same year, it lost its unique seat during the general election.

1950s: poor results

Due to the lack of cohesion within the party: there were lots of divisions on several issues. And it had a negative image in public opinion: nationalism was considered evil and often associated with Nazi Germany and World War II.

1960s: breakthrough

1967: Hamilton by-election won by the SNP. The candidate elected was a woman, Winnifred Ewing.

1968: local elections. Very good results for the SNP.

People felt Scotland was spared the benefits of the economic boom of the United Kingdom. Scotland was among the regions which benefited the least. There was a feeling of discontent among the Scots. The SNP made progress.

After 1968, the SNP started to be taken seriously by both the Labour and the Conservative parties. Reactions :

  • Conservative Party (in opposition)

    In May 1968, Edward Heath (leader of the Conservative party) said he would give Scotland an Assembly: this is known as the “Declaration of Perth”. He created a constitutional committee presided by Sir Alec-Douglas-Home. The committee produced a report called “Scotland’s Government” in 1970.

    Recommendations:

       – creation of a Scottish Assembly,
       – 125 members elected directly,
       – powers to initiate and discuss Bills (to be approved by the British Parliament in Westminster).

  • Labour Party (in office)

    The Prime Minister, Harold Wilson, appointed the Royal Commission on the Constitution in 1968. The chairman was Lord Kilbrandon and it is referred to as the “Kilbrandon Commission”. It produced 2 reports in 1973.

    Recommendations:

       – creation of a Scottish Assembly,
       – members elected directly by Proportional Representation (a major innovation compared to the first-past-the-post system).

Lire la suite

Scottish Home Rule photo

Scottish Home Rule

  1. Scotland: the State, the Nation, Home Rule, and Devolution
  2. The Act of Union of 1707
  3. Scottish Home Rule
  4. The rise of the Scottish National Party (SNP)
  5. The Scottish Parliament
  6. Scotland: the Road to Independence

Introduction

After the Union of 1707, Scotland started to export goods massively: especially linen, cattle, and tobacco (Glasgow was nicknamed the “tobacco metropolis”).

Gradually the Union came to represent career opportunities for the upper-class and middle-class Scots: some joined the Army in India, some became merchants in London and some others migrated to North America as settlers.

1760s: 1st Industrial Revolution in Scotland. Until then, Scotland was a rural country. It became rapidly urbanized.

1760-1830: Scottish economy based on the textile industry (cotton, linen and wool).

After 1830, new industries appeared: the steel industry and the shipbuilding industry.

During Victorian Scotland (1837-1901), all industries were owned by the Scots. They were prosperous and exported their goods all over the world. There was no feeling of discontent for they were proud to be contributing to the Empire, adding up their prosperity.

In the 1880s, Scottish home rule (more autonomy) emerged as an issue in Scottish politics. It was the result of 3 factors:

Lire la suite

The Act of Union of 1707 photo

The Act of Union of 1707

  1. Scotland: the State, the Nation, Home Rule, and Devolution
  2. The Act of Union of 1707
  3. Scottish Home Rule
  4. The rise of the Scottish National Party (SNP)
  5. The Scottish Parliament
  6. Scotland: the Road to Independence

Introduction

Scotland was never conquered by England. There were attempts but they failed. At the end of the 13th century, the wars of independence began.

On May 1st 1707, the Act of Union was ratified between England and Scotland: the Scottish Parliament and the English Parliament were suspended. They created the British Parliament and formed Great Britain by the Union of Scotland and England.

At the time, Scotland was already a protestant country (the Reformation came in the 16th century, before then she was catholic). As England was also protestant, the two nations grew closer.

The Queen chose several men to represent Scotland and England in a commission to discuss the terms of the Treaty of Union. Several Acts and events precipitated the Union.

1698 – 1699: expeditions to Darien

It was a total failure for the Company of Scotland :

  • Scotland lost trading opportunities with France (due to the Reformation),
  • the Navigation Acts (1660-1663) prevented Scotland from trading with English colonies.

In England, the East-Indian Company had monopole and money. Hence, Scotland wanted the same: that is how the Company of Scotland was set up in 1695. Its full name was “Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and the Indies”.

The East Indian was not very happy and put pressure on English financiers who wanted to provide money to the capital of the Company of Scotland. The financiers finally withdrew and the Scots had to provide money themselves: a multitude of people giving little money.

The Company of Scotland established a trading post in America: Darien, in the Isthmus of Panama. 1698 saw the 1st expedition to Darien. It was a terrible failure for many people died during the journey and by fighting against the Spaniards already settled there.

The 2nd expedition was also a failure and the people who had invested in the enterprise were ruined, just like the company. After that experience, the Scots thought the best thing would be a union with England (no more Navigation Acts and access to colonies trading).

Lire la suite

Don Álvaro o la Fuerza del Sino por el Duque de Rivas photo

Don Álvaro o la Fuerza del Sino por el Duque de Rivas

Ángel de Saavedra, Duque de Rivas

Ángel de Saavedra, Duque de Rivas, nació en Córdoba el 10 de Marzo de 1791 y murió en Madrid el 22 de Junio de 1865. De familia aristocrática, recibió una vasta educación, con gran influencia de la cultura francesa, que motivó su gusto por la literatura y el dibujo.

Poeta y autor español, Ángel de Saavedra tuvo una vida atormentada. Criado en el seminario de los Nobles de Madrid, fue nombrado oficial de la guardia del Rey y se distinguió en la guerra de la Independencia (1808); condenado a muerte por Fernando VII a causa de sus ideas liberales, consiguió huir y vivió como exiliado durante diez años en Inglaterra, Italia, Malta y Francia.

Vuelve a España tras la amnistía de 1834, hereda el titulo de Duque y una gran fortuna; convertido al conservadurismo, es ministro, presidente del Consejo de Estado, embajador, director de la Real Academia de la Lengua.

Sus primeras poesías y sus primeros dramas muestran la influencia del neoclasicismo (Meléndez, Valdez y Quintana). Luego, el autor se orienta deliberadamente hacia el Romanticismo, con tres obras especialmente célebres.

La primera es un poema en doce romances: El Moro Expósito (1834), que trata de la leyenda del bastardo Mudarra y de sus hermanos. Es un fresco realista y fantástico de las civilizaciones árabe y cristiana en la España de la Edad Media.

El prólogo fue escrito por Alcalá Galiano. Don Álvaro o la fuerza del sino, cuya primera representación tuvo lugar en Madrid en 1835, representó el triunfo del Romanticismo sobre el Escenario; este drama fue en España lo que Hernani había sido en Francia.

Las trágicas aventuras de un héroe perseguido por el sino, el misterio, el amor y la muerte, con una mezcla de tipos y de tonos, lances imprevistos, etc.

Todo contribuye a crear una ilustración clamorosa del romanticismo. El Duque de Rivas se inspiró en la vida real: tuvo una propiedad, “La Jarilla”, en Hornachuelos y conoció la leyenda de la “Mujer Penitente”. Verdi se inspiró en este éxito para su ópera, La Forza del Destino (1862).

El último título glorioso del Duque son sus Romances históricos (1841), que trata de personajes y peripecias de la historia nacional, desde el reinado de Pedro El Cruel hasta la batalla de Bailén.

El Duque de Rivas, tras una vida plena, murió en 1865, pocos días después de la muerte de Antonio Galiano, su gran amigo.

Resumen

Don Álvaro, un indiano rico y misterioso que vive en Sevilla, tiene un romance con doña Leonor, hija del Marqués de Calatrava. Como éste no aprueba esos amores, don Álvaro decide raptar de su casa a doña Leonor. En la huida de los amantes, el Marqués muere accidentalmente. Este hecho da inicio a la tragedia de los protagonistas.

Los enamorados desaparecen. Doña Leonor vive oculta durante un año, de modo que todos, incluso don Álvaro, la creen muerta. Después, se retira al monasterio de los Ángeles, en Hornachuelos.

Don Álvaro viaja a Italia. Los dos hijos del Marqués, don Carlos y don Alfonso, han jurado vengar la muerte de su padre y salen en busca del indiano. En Veletri se encuentran y reconocen don Álvaro y don Carlos, lo que lleva a un duelo donde perece don Carlos. Don Álvaro sobrevive y se refugia en el convento de los Ángeles, en España, donde vive como fraile durante cuatro años.

Por su parte, don Alfonso, que había viajado a Perú, descubre toda la verdad sobre don Álvaro y regresa a buscarle. Segundo duelo obligado, en el cual cae herido don Alfonso. Ambos descubren que doña Leonor vive en la cercana ermita, y don Alfonso, creyéndola cómplice de don Álvaro, la mata.

Para don Álvaro, la única escapatoria a su destino es el suicidio, de modo que se arroja desde la montaña diciendo: «Yo soy un enviado del infierno, soy el demonio exterminador».

Estructura

Este drama está divido en cinco jornadas, cosa típica del teatro neoclásico. Podemos ver que Don Álvaro o la fuerza del sino tiene todas las características del teatro romántico en cuanto a historia, temas y estilo. Pero, en lo que se refiere a las normas neoclásicas de las tres unidades, el Duque de Rivas se tomó muchas libertades:

  • Hay diferentes lugares, de España a Italia.
  • El drama cubre un periodo de cinco años.
  • Hay una acción principal, pero también se intercalan historias costumbristas y cotidianas.

Las differentes jornadas

Primera Jornada

La escena empieza en Sevilla y sus alrededores, cerca del puente de Triana, con la escena cotidiana de un aguaducho. Están presentes el tío Paco, el oficial, una gitanilla que dice la buenaventura.

Observamos un cambio de decoración en la escena V, cuando estamos en casa de Doña Leonor.

Jornada Segunda

La escena tiene lugar en la villa de Hornachuelos, en Córdoba y sus alrededores. Estamos en el mesón de Monipodio. Están presentes el mesonero y la mesonera, un alcalde, un estudiante, un arriero y el tío Trabuco.

La acción principal consiste en el estudiante hablando con mucha cultura y burlándose un poco de los otros, incultos.

Se cambia la decoración en la escena III, nos hallamos en el exterior del monasterio de los Ángeles.

Jornada Tercera

La escena tiene lugar en Italia, en Veletri y sus alrededores. Cuatro oficiales jugando a los naipes. Estamos en una sala. Hay un cambio de decoración en la escena III: aparece una selva. También en la escena V: el teatro representa un risueño campo de Italia.

Otro cambio en la escena VII: estamos en el alojamiento de un oficial superior.

Jornada Cuarta

La escena tiene lugar en Veletri. Esta jornada es la única que no empieza con una escena costumbrista. Nos hallamos de nuevo en el alojamiento militar. La escena II se desarrolla fuera.

El lugar es la plaza principal de Veletri. Están presentes el teniente, el subteniente, Pedraza y unos oficiales. Podemos considerar esta escena como la escena costumbrista.

Jornada Quinta

La escena se desarrolla en el convento de los Ángeles y sus alrededores. Consiste en la sopa del convento. Hay mendigos y lisiados, el Padre Guardián y el Hermano Melitón.

En la escena IV, nos encontramos en una celda. Después, en la escena VIII, volvemos al lugar de la escena I. en la escena IX, nos hallamos fuera, el teatro representa un valle. En este lugar finaliza el drama.

En total, en toda la obra se producen quince cambios de decorado. En cuanto al tiempo, entre el fin de la jornada cuarta y la jornada quinta se produce un salto temporal: Don Álvaro lleva cuatro años retirado en el monasterio de los Ángeles.

Tenemos así que cuatro de las cinco jornadas empiezan con una escena costumbrista, que dan un colorido de romance popular, en contraste con las escenas nobles.

Temas principales

Uno de los temas es el tradicional de la venganza, sobre todo expresada en forma de duelo. Ese anhelo de vengarse parece salvar la honra familiar que ha sufrido una ofensa. En la obra, la furia del Marqués se transforma en deseo de venganza que pasa, como una obligación, a sus hijos.

El inicio del problema está en el amor, o mejor dicho la pasión entre don Álvaro y doña Leonor, que será muy breve porque será destruido por los deberes que la sociedad imponen y por la familia de Leonor.

Pero el tema principal es siempre “la fuerza del sino”, es decir la fatalidad que se abate sobre don Álvaro hasta su muerte. En efecto, esta fatalidad le impedirá vivir su amor con doña Leonor, y acabará matando al Marqués y a sus hijos.

Don Álvaro se sentirá entonces culpable por sus actos y huirá, hasta recluirse durante cuatro años en la soledad de un convento. Por último, pasando de fraile a enviado del infierno, don Álvaro se suicida considerándose «demonio exterminador» y pidiendo al infierno que se lo trague.

Don Álvaro no ha salvado su alma, no ha recibido la divina misericordia. Es éste el conflicto típicamente romántico: el hombre entre Dios y el mundo.

Personajes importantes

Don Álvaro es un indiano rico y de misterioso origen que vive en Sevilla. Está muy enamorado de doña Leonor y quiere fugarse con ella para casarse. Podemos ver a Don Álvaro como la personificación del ser romántico: su sentimiento interior es una mezcla indisoluble de dolor y soledad, y se ve dominado por el destino.

Además, idealiza la amistad, el honor y el amor: por esa razón, siempre se verá decepcionado por la vida terrenal y la única escapatoria a su destino será el suicidio.

Doña Leonor es una doncella aristocrática cuya pasión por don Álvaro provoca inexorablemente los tormentos del alma de su amante y le conduce a la culminación de un destino fatal. Leonor huye a un convento, pasa del sentimiento amoroso al sentimiento de culpa, que a su vez da lugar a la penitencia, en la cual encuentra la muerte.

El Marqués de Calatrava es el padre de doña Leonor, don Carlos y don Alfonso. Parece rígido porque se opone rotundamente a la boda de su hija con don Álvaro, por considerar al pretendiente un aventurero advenedizo. Pero no es la suya la figura de la severidad autoritaria, sino la de un padre que sólo quiere proteger a su hija.

El Marqués sorprende a los dos amantes y trata de impedir su huida pero muere accidentalmente, herido de muerte por el arma de don Álvaro.

Don Carlos es el primer hijo del Marqués. Busca vengar la muerte de su padre y lavar la afrenta a su familia con la sangre de don Álvaro. Se encuentra con don Álvaro y hace amistad con él hasta que descubre su identidad, lo cual lleva al duelo en que perece.

El funesto fin de Don Carlos puede asimilarse al principio vigente en la sociedad de la época: el principio de morir para vengar la honra escarnecida.

Don Alfonso es el segundo hijo del Marqués. También él quiere matar a don Álvaro y a doña Leonor. Encuentra a don Álvaro en un convento y le reta a un duelo, encontrando también él la muerte, no sin antes descubrir la presencia de su hermana en dicho convento y matarla, destrozando una vez más las esperanzas del amante.

Don Alfonso representa la funesta realización del dichoso destino de los dos amantes.

Otros personajes

El ámbito social abarca desde la nobleza de sangre real hasta los mendigos. El ejército está representado por múltiples estamentos: desde el grado de teniente coronel al de preboste u ordenanza. Para la religión tenemos en primer lugar a los franciscanos: Padre Guardián, definido como un siervo de Dios, y el Hermano Melitón, fraile gruñón pero gracioso.

También tenemos al canónigo, digno y prudente, que da lugar a toda la tragedia, y un capellán de regimiento. El alcalde representa la vida política. Encontramos también a un capitán, un cirujano, un estudiante parlanchín, arrieros, un aguador, mesoneros y criados.

Al lado de todos estos personajes, vemos a una gitana, Preciosilla, que parece inspirada en la Gitanilla de Cervantes, el ventero Monipodio, un pícaro sevillano y Félix de Avendaña.

Por último, don Álvaro se presenta con falsas identidades: el militar don Fadrique (que fue realmente hijo de Alfonso XI y de Leonor de Guzmán) y el Padre Rafael en el convento de los Ángeles.

Lengua y efectos estilísticos

Los cincos actos o jornadas, típicos del teatro neoclásico, tienen un doble ritmo: lento y moroso en los deliciosos cuadros de costumbres, rápido y precipitado cuando se pone en tensión el hilo argumental.

El Romanticismo acepta la mezcla de prosa y verso, contradiciendo así la estética neoclásica. El Duque de Rivas, para el verso, admite la diversidad métrica del Barroco, utilizando la redondilla, el romance, la silva y la décima. En Don Álvaro encontramos también unas seguidillas.

La única ley romántica es la ley de la libertad: no son las formas las que se imponen al poeta, es el poeta el que las somete a su sentimiento. Varias asonancias sirven de motivo sentimental que a veces hace adquirir al romance un aire particularmente sinfónico.

La versificación de Don Álvaro es desigual: a veces robusta, bastante fluida y con pocos ripios; llena de prosaísmo en otros casos. Las escenas de rigor argumental están en verso y las episódicas y costumbristas en prosa; con excepción de la escena final de la primera jornada, escrita en prosa rápida, detonante de gritos y maldiciones, y de las dos últimas escenas del drama, con el terrible desenlace, también en prosa entrecortada por exclamaciones imprecatorias.

A través de esta obra, podemos notar la frecuente yuxtaposición de los estilos elevado y llano, la gran variedad y riqueza en el vocabulario y en la estructura de las frases, que ilustran perfectamente todas las situaciones y los estados de ánimo de los personajes.

Bibliografía consultada

  • Joaquín Casualdero, Estudios sobre el Teatro Español, publicado en Madrid por Gredos en 1962.
  • Gabriel Boussagnol, Angel de Saavedra, Duc de Rivas. Sa vie, son oeuvre, publicado en Toulouse en 1926.
  • Miguel de Toro y Gisbert, Larousse Universal, Diccionario en séis volúmenes (tomo tercero), publicado en 1968.
  • Duque de Rivas, Don Alvaro o la fuerza del sino (introducción), publicado en Madrid por Catedra – Letras Hispanícas en 1998, edición de Alberto Sanchez.